DESIGNING MOTIVATIONAL LEARNING SYSTEMS
DESIGNING MOTIVATIONAL LEARNING SYSTEMS
IN DISTANCE EDUCATION
Assist. Prof. Dr. Jale BALABAN-SALI
Anadolu University
Faculty of Communication Sciences
Eskisehir, TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The designing of instruction, when considered as a process, is the determination of
instructional requirements of the learner and development of functional learning
systems in order to meet these requirements. In fact, as a consequence of studies on the development of effective learning systems some instructional design theories have emerged. Among these theories the motivational design theory po ints out that
instructional processes are required to be configured with the strategies which
increases the attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction of the students for an
instructional design which ensures the continuity of learning motivation.
The studies indicate that the systems which are developed on the basis of mentioned strategies raise the attention of the student during instruction, develop a relevance to the students’ requirements, create a positive expectation for success and help having a satisfaction by reinforcing success. In this article, the empirical studies related with this subject and the suggestions for presenting mo re effective motivational instructional designs in distance learning are summarized.
Keywords: Motivational design theory, the ARCS model, Distance education.
INTRODUCTION
The learning environments have comparatively enlarged thanks to technology. As
learning environments have enlarged, the educators have come fa ce to face with two major phenomena. The first of them is novelty effect of the new technology and
attractiveness of the new technology in providing with effective, efficient and
interesting learning opportunities which exist in its potential capacity. The second of them is the fact that mankind has still been having the same motivational requirements
since his/her existence. The problems of motivation and/or instructional design can be experienced in distance education and in the other web-based learning environments.
In this article, first of all, major characteristics and problems about the motivation of
distance education students are defined. Secondly, main categories of motivational
design theory, motivational design process in distance education and finally samples of
empirical studies attach importance to motivational design in distance education are
summarized.
STUDENT PROFILE IN DISTANCE EDUCATION
Distance Education Students register a distance education program for various reasons
such as for promotion in their careers, acquiring a second chance for university
education, updating their knowledge, willing to overcome the geographical and
physical obstacles (Willis, 1993). A great many of the distance education students are
adults who have jobs and families.
Therefore they have to o rganize their time in their lives for their families, jobs, their free time and study hours for lessons.
The students generally feel lonely in distance education. The lack of communication
and competition with the other students affect the sududents’ motivations. The other
problem as important as this problem is the student’s obligatio n of researching into internet and other sources of knowledge for taking his/her own learning responsibility and internalizing these knowledge. This fact can cause a restri ction for the students who can not take their own learning responsibilities.
Distance education students are enthusiastic for this learning environment because of the suitability that they expected and individual control degree. Besides, the existence
of some problems can be clearly observed because of the high non-completion rate
(Scalese, 2001). The students complain about the lack of instant support, guidance and
incentives although it is known that their isolated state requires more support than the
students in normal conditions (Keller, 1999).
The students in distance education do not have the same background as their teachers.
These students have come from different social, cultural, economic and family
characters. Therefore developing a close interaction between student-teacher can take
long time. Besides, the students can feel uneasy during the learning period because of
the lack of face-to-face communication (Scalese, 2001).
In literature, motivation is pointed out as one of the major reasons of these problems.
This can be accepted true, but the quality of instructional design is also an important
factor. When considered as a process, instructional design is the determination of
educational requirements of the learner and the development of functional learning
systems in order to meet these requirements. Thus, as a result of the studies on the
development of effective learning systems, several instructional design theories have
emerged.
Motivational Design Theory asserts that instructional material should be configured
with the strategies which increase the attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction
of the students for a instuctional design which ensures the continuity of learning
motivation (Keller, 1983; Keller & Kopp, 1987).According to Keller, the goal of the
many instructional design theories that have been developed is providing an effective
and efficient instruction. However, in these theories the aspect of motivation has been
generally ignored. Whereas motivation has to be essence of learning.
Motivation is individual’s willing to perform required behaviours in order to attain
his/her goals. According to motivational design theory, in order to create an effective,
efficient and attractive instructional design, the elements of motivation which are
handled in four categories have to be understood well. The following are these
categories: Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction.
The model which consists of the capital letters of these categories is known shortly as
the ARCS Model.
The first step of motivation is acquiring the attention of the student during the
instruction period and ensuring its continuity.
If the content that will be taught is not relevant with the requirements of the student
or the state he/she is in, it will be difficult for the students, the curiosity of whom is
stimulated, to preserve their interests and curiosities. Confidence is the student’s
developing positive expectation in order to perform a high degree of success. If the
student loses his/her confidence, it will become quite difficult for him/her to attain
success. The last element of the ARCS Model is satisfaction.
Motivation in high degrees is realized as a result of the satis faction that the student get
from instruction. If the student observes that his/her success is not reinforced
according to the natural difficulty level that the instruction includes, he/she will feel
unsatisfied.
The most important contribution of Keller’s motivational design to the field of
instruction is not only in this model motivational elements are determined and are
classified, but also instructional strategies related to every category and sub-categories
are given. In this way, it becomes rather easy to use the model in the field of
instruction. Moreover, learner characteristics can be defined i n every sub-category in order to be able to develop learners’ motivational qualities (K eller & Suzuki, 1988).
Based on the learner characteristics, motivational quality of instruction can be
enhanced with the instructional methods suitable to learners’ motivational
qualities.Each factor of the ARCS Model has three elements, which Keller (1987)
delineates. First, Attention includes
perceptual arousal: us e of strategies to gain initial interes t;
inquiry arousal-use of problem-solving, questioning, a sense of mystery and
progressive disclosure to increase interest;
Variability-use of variety (lecture with visuals, group activity, or game) for a
change of pace.
Various studies have indicated that variability, unexpected events, curiosity and
incompatible situations stimulate attention.
The strategies such as trying different methods in instruction, using different
presentation styles, answering s tudents’ questions with a different (even misleading)
opinion, choosing different examples and drills related with the subject can help the attention of students last all through the lesson by providing variability.
Naime-Diefenbach (1991) also states that the students who have completed a lesson
that includes increased attention strategies have acquired higher success points than
the control group.
Second, Relevance, which is the concept of linking the content to the learner’s needs and wants, includes:
goal orientation, which may mean outcome of learning such as obtaining a
job, reward, etc. or may imply the means of learning;
motive matching involves the learner’s choices about s trategies of learning,
such as by group interaction, competition, or individual work;
familiarity o r connect to what one already believes and understands such as
realistic graphics, people’s names, personal learning experiences.
Newby (1991) has found out a significant positive correlation between relevance
strategies and on-task behaviors in a study which he has applied on totally 30 first year elementary school teachers. Each teacher used several motivating strategies (concerning getting attention, emphasizing relevance, building confidence, and imposing rewards and punishments).
In an another study, relevance strategies have been effective on increasing the
students’ motivational perceptions (Nwagbara, 1993).
The students perceive the subjects as more familiar to them by the usage of stories or
pictures of the people and objects that they accept as familiar. Giving the examples are
from daily life or close neighborhood help connecting them to real life. The usage of
personalized language while communicating has also an importance for the student.
Keller ve Suzuki (1988) s uggest using pronouns, student names a nd graphics for the new concepts to be understood.
Third, Confidence, which provides a sense of self worth and success ability in
challenging tasks, involves strategies to:
provide learning requirements in the form of clear objectives;
provide success opportunities early and often enough to establish the
learner’s belief in his or her ability to achieve.
provide personal control over the learning with choices of content,
objectives and activities. This relates success to one’s choices and effort.
The students have to believe that they will be successful. This doesn’t mean making the
success certain. However, it is required that the individual takes his/her chance and
tests his/her capacity in learning new behaviors.
In such occasions, the individual gains knowledge about his/her own limits. The
increase of expectations on success generally depends on the increase of experiences
about success.
Fourth, Satisfaction includes strategies to:
increase the natural consequences for use of the content, simulations,
projects, real-life activity;
provide positive consequences: both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards;
assure equity of rewards so that they match achievements
ARCS DESIGN PROCE SS
The ARCS model contains design process with ten steps for the development
motivational learning systems in the cases of work and learning settings (Figure: 1).
1. Obtain
Course description and rationale
Setting and delivery system course
Instructor information information
Entry skill levels 2. Obtain
2- Attitudes toward school or work audience
Attitudes toward course information/Motivational profile
3. Analyze
Root causes /audience /Modifiable influences/Positive features
4. Analyze
Deficiencies or problems existing /Related issues/materials /Motivational design goals
5. List objectives
Learner behaviors & assessments/ Confirmation methods/Brainstorm list of tactics
6. List potential
Beginning, during, and end tactics/ Throughout /Integrated tactics/Enhancement tactics
7. Select &Sustaining tactics / design tactics/Combine designs
8. Integrate
Points of inclusion /with instruction/Revisions to be /Select available materials
9. Select &Modify to the situation
develop /Develop new materials /materials /Obtain student reactions
10. Evaluate &
Determine satisfaction level /revise /Revise if necessary
Figure: 1 Steps in Motivational Design (Keller, 1999)
The first two steps including all the elements of analysis of the process produce
knowledge about the case; and the third and fourth steps provides a base for the
analysis of gaps that is made and their effects. On the basis of these analysis, goals
about the ways of evaluation of the performance development processes are prepared
on the fifth step. After that, there are also two steps about the design. The sixth step
includes brainstorming for creating possible solutions from every motivational
category. The seventh step is a more analytic step which aims at choosing solutions which suit best to the time, resources and other factors according to the existing conditions. The final step involves both the development and evaluation.
As in any systematic design process, the development of motivational learning system
also begins with collecting information (Figure 1, Step 1 and 2) and continues with
analysis (Step 3 and 4).
These steps define motivational properties that direct the goals and also the gaps. Two
difficulties that are encountered during this process are determining the degree and
nature of a motivational problem. The first concerns the pro blems that result in the
symptoms of the lack of motivation and they may not be caused by motivational
reasons.
The reason of the lack of motivation in the individuals may actually be lack of capacity
or problems of opportunity. For example, some individuals may develop low
expectations for success by thinking that they will never reach a satisfying result. The
source of the problem in this example is lack of skills.
The second difficulty in identifying a problem related with motivation arises from the nature of the motivation. There is a reverse U relation between motivation and
performance (Keller, 1987; Keller, 1999). When motivation increases, performance
also increases, but this increase continues until an optimal point is reached.
Afterwards, while motivation increases by a certain degree, performance begins to
decrease by the inducement of excessive stress. In short, certain level of anxiety and
stress always accompany motivation.
When a problem of motivation is determined, first of all it is classified according to the
four categories that are defined before and for every situation how much the students
get motivated at each category is determined. For example, in the category of attention
because the individuals do not pay attention since they get bored, lack of motivation can be seen or he/she may study more than normal level by thinking that it is a good opportunity of learning.
In the design of motivational learning systems (Steps 6-8), the best alternative is
studying on the problems that are specifically defined. These requirements are
specified. After a specific problem is chosen to be worked out, to first task to be done
on the first step of the design (Step 6) is to put forth the probable solutions through
brainstorming. At this point, all the probable ways of solution should be listed by not
checking whether they are appropriate or not. The aim is to produce ideas as many as
possible as in any process of brainstorming.
The second task is (Step 7), to define the appropriate solution by not paying attention
to the restraints. The appropriate solution can be configured from the several specific
suggestion that comes up during the process of brainstorming. The important thing at this step is not to worry about the cost, organizational politics or other restraining
factors that prevents the appropriate solution
Later at the eighth step, the most applicable strategies among the ones that are listed
at the seventh step are chosen and placed in the motivational learning system. The aim
of implementing this multi-level process is to encourage the designer about guessing what will happen in the future. All the possible solutions which seem very appropriate at first are put forth. In this way, instead of the first solution which is found at the beginning through a narrow perspective, applicable and better solutions can be produced.
The development and evaluation of the solutions that are formed at ninth and tenth
step follow the same process as the course that can be used in any other field of the practice. At these steps, preparation of the task plans, development and revision of materials and making the preparations of practice are required. As in any effective
system development activity, it is important to combine motivational strategies with
other elements of system in a sound way. For example, if the strategies like case study
which is given at the beginning of the lesson do not meet the requirements of the
learner and do not help the preparation of the goals, they can be completely waste of
time. The evaluation of the learner provides knowledge about the effectiveness of the
strategies.
The development and application of motivational learning systems is also like in basic instructional design model. During the development step, it is required to choose the materials that will be used in instructional and to adapt (Step 9) these materials according to the motivational learning principles. Instead of the adaptation of materials according to the situation, the development of new materials can be
considered as another alternative. During the development step, shortly the decisions which are taken during the design step are tried to be applied. The learning environment at the application step has great significance for the learner. Both the learning environment and the instructors are prepared for the motivational learning system.
Pedagogical activities are planned and applied in order to reach certain goals. At the evaluation step which is the final step, the four steps that have been developed are evaluated in terms of time and success. For ensuring benefits that are expected,
meeting the requirements and materializing the goals in motivational learning systems,
it is required that the students who have attended to the activities should be
successful. By obs erving the reactions of the students towards instruction, the level of
their satisfaction is examined. If there is any insufficiency, necessary corrections are made. Ultimately, the level of effectiveness, efficiency and attractiveness of the
motivational learning system is tried to be determined.
Designing process is a comprehensive and an effective period, however it has two
restraining factors. First, the individual who has designed the motivational learning
system should have some knowledge about the four categories and various
motivational factors that are represented by all the sub-categories of these four
categories. Secondly, during the process of motivational learning system design, it
takes so much time applying all the steps. In the situations when there is a serious
testing of motivational capability or when a lesson has a very important motivational
effectiveness, to follow the ten-step pro cess that is mentioned will be the best
alternative. However, in many cases the conditions that are mentioned are not formed.
For the instructors or instructional designers who have very little or no knowledge
about the motivational concepts and principles, a simplified approach can ensure a
better outcome.
APPLICATIONS IN DISTANCE LEARNING
There are very significant motivational difficulties for the distance education students.
The ratio of dropout the program can by itself be a sign of the problems originating
from motivation. The interpretations of the students often indicate feeling of loneliness
that they do not go forward purposefully; problems of time and that they have doubts
about completing the program together with other responsibilities (Keller, 1999).
Visser (1998) used a simplified version of ARCS model design in the analysis of the learner, conditions, and potential solutions. The study is limited with the traditional distance education lesson which generally makes us e of textual material but is also sometimes supported by audio or video cassettes. In this lesson in which various methods used together the effectiveness of teacher-student inte raction as a motivational strategy has been taken into consideration. The teacher sent the student expressions of encouragement and empathy, reminder, suggestion and appropriate messages related with the content periodically. To focus on the students and to raise their motivation created positive results on the teacher’s academic successes.
The simplified designing process shown in the Table: 1 used in designing these
messages. The designing factors that are in the first two rows include the attitude of
the s tudents towards distance learning in general before the lessons and during the lessons. The answers that the designers will give to these questions are significant for
the learner. The designing factor in the third row indicates the attitudes of the student
towards the course content and the fourth row indicates the attitudes of the student towards the support that he/s he has been given during the course. The fifth row presents a summary of the elements in the other four rows.
Table: 1
Mini design for the development of motivational messages in distance education courses (Keller, 1999)
DESIGN ARCS CATEGORIES FACTORS
Attention Relevance Confidence Satisfaction Precourse New students: Decision to take the A very sensitive area as Successful attitudes of strong in the course is, most of the mode of instruction completion of the students beginning (new the time, voluntary, is new and unfamiliar. course is an toward materials/new not imposed. No big Generally satisfactory important step in distance topic), gradually problems expected for experienced and the direction of a learning diminishing as in relevance. May successful distance degree.
novelty washes off . improve as learners education learners. Probably low level apply what they Repeaters anxious of attention for have learned, or about pitfalls; repeaters. decrease if not what newcomers uncertain. was expected. Also, there is n o peer support. Midterm Initially high Continues to provide If they are confident in Reasonable, but attitudes attention and an interesting the beginning this dissatisfaction toward curiosity wear off possibility to make a wears off. Evaluation sometimes sets in.
distance as courses are career move or to system is not very Both repeaters and
learning often not really show what has been encouraging. No new students soon
exciting and learned. Time motivational support disappointed about
sometimes even conflicts with other included in course. the limited boring. activities occur. Very low level of interaction and confidence for about studying in beginners. isolation.
Student Initially high, but Course content is Confiden ce that it can Remains reasonable reactions to soon decreases due relevant, but too be done soon fades due
this course to lack of novelty little interactivity to to volume of work, lackcontent and variation in help students learn of support, and lack of content and how to apply it. opportunity to see
learning strategies. Some material is growth and application outdated.
Characteristics Minimal, only Feedback is usually Feedback is mostly Low because of lack of student contact is through limited strictly to worded in a positive of meaningful and support during feedback on course content. No way, but occasionally personal contact.
the course assignments. creative feedback to too general Nothing unusual or show connections to unexpected students. happens.
Summary Initial attention is Relevance usually Confiden ce depends Satisfaction is not asoon slipping continues through heavily on results, bu big problem, other course, although is generally low. This would not be if theist becomes less area needs extensive other issues were important motivational treatment resolved.
Examples of Bring pacing into Provide occasional Emphasize that they Make turn-around motivational the course and extra material such can do it if effort is put time for
tactics to be offer tutor’s as a publication. into the course. assignments short.
used in assistance. Use Provide creative Reassure the learners Ensure that tutors
motivational student’s name and feedback and link by showing personal are accessible. Refer messages include personal feedback to interest and concern. to positive feelings a comments in learner’s work and Make them feel part of learner will have feedback daily circumstances. a group who are all when the course is
messages. Provide struggling to get it completed an unexpected done. Show empathy. successfully.
communication to Provide encouragemen Reward early students from time and personal completion through to time. challenges at times complimenting that are known to be learners personally.斗ow points_ in the term.
To assess the effectiveness of this intervention, she compared retention rates in the experimental section of the course to three other sections that did not receive
motivational messages, and she did a qualitative review of student responses to
various course evaluation and feedback instruments. She did not ask them directly
about the effects of the motivational messages to avoid stimulating attitudes that may
not have been present spontaneously in the students’ minds. Improved retention rates
of 70 to 80%, which are similar to conventional education, and student comments both
offered clear support for the motivational messages.
Zumbach and Reimann (1999) discuss the relationship between problem-based
learning (PBL) and computer supported collaborative argumentation (CSCA) in order to
investigate how computer-based collaboration can be used to support PBL.
In addition, they provide an instructional model for combining PBL, CSCA and Keller's ARCS-model, which can serve as the conceptual basis for ongoing work on
development and empirical testing.
Chyung (2001) presents a solution for the dropout problem in distance learning
environment. The author s uggests online interventions strategies based on the ARCS model. She implements the ARCS model as a guideline to conduct learner analysis and modify instruction to improve motivational appeal to individual learners in a distance learning environment.
Visser, Plomp, Arimault and Kuiper (2002) point that a great number of distance
learning courses suffer from extremely low student completion rates compared to their
traditional classroom. Authors regard motivational problems as a possible cause for the
suffering. They describe the motivational problems that a repre sentative group of
international distance education students had as well as she suggests 殿 specific, low-cost motivational intervention_ using the ARCS model that can enable instructors to
effectively and efficiently support for students’ motivation.
Based on the outcomes of the study it was found that: Motivational strategies
improved the disposition of the learners to finish the course successfully; the number
of learners successfully finishing the courses increased; collective messages were more
cost efficient than personalized messages; there was no conclusive evidence that the use of personalized messages was more effective than the use of collective messages;
the messages had a particularly strong impact on an improved level of self-confidence
of the learners and the use of motivational strategies resulted in an enrichment of the
student support system.
Sch, Hoffmann and Herczeg (2003) discuss the combination of instructional and
narrative models for e-learning. This theoretical paper introduces issues and methods
for combining instructional and narrative models for e-learning.
The authors incorporate the ARCS model as part of their study in pointing out that today’s multimedia 妬s often reduced to the combining of different media elements.
Analogous to a s tructure of a book the content is presented chapter by chapter. Various
elements such as images, animations, and videos are embedded in text or each
chapter, whereas dramaturgical structures or narrative concepts are not utilized._ The
goal of the project described here is 鍍o convert the hierarchical learning structures of
these co urses into media-friendly and learner-friendly online l earning
modules_.Digital stood retelling concepts and corresponding, multimedia elements are
combined to create an innovative narrative learning structure._
Keller and Suzuki (2004) discuss how a general model for motiva tional design, the
ARCS model, can be applied in e-learning design. The authors state that, 典echnology offers many innovative features that can be used to make instruction more appealing to learners. However, many of these features are interesting only because they are novel and may lose their appeal as learners become accustomed to them._ They go on to point out that, 徹vercoming these motivational challenges can be difficult because of the complexity of human motivation and the vast number of motivational concepts and theories that exist._
The results of these empirical studies have confirmed the validity of this model for the
systematic design of motivationally enhanced instruction in e-learning settings with
regard to lowering drop-out rates and other positive motivational outco mes.
Mills and Sorensen (2004) incorporate ARCS motivational design elements into the
Kid’s CollegeT M 2004 educational software program. The paper specifically examines how the software program serves as an implementation of the Keller’s ARCS motivational model of instruction. Kids College is as web-based learning program designed by Learning Through Sports, LLC. The program was developed to keep students engaged in the learning process by providing an interactive learning
environment that utilizes sports-themed activities into the program.
The Kid’s College program offers eight interactive sports activities that each co ntain hundreds of questions correlating to state standards in math, reading, and language at the grades K-8 level. The program serves as a resource focused on reinforcing skills taught in the classroom by providing a variety of practice opportunities for students.
Patronis (2005) conducts a case study that an online forum was used for interaction among learners in an online environment. In order to explore the interaction, the ARCS model was implemented. This study investigates the motivational forces and barriers to learners’ motivation through the analyses of a series of data from questionnaires and students’ feedback, which showed that online interaction can enhance learners’ motivation and engagement in the learning process.Perrin (2005) argues that changes are necessary in pedagogy and ability to provide quality support for distance learning.
From the statement 登nline experience is not necessarily better or worse than traditional classroom instruction, but it is different,_ this paper begins to focus on 鍍he transition process for teacher, student, and the provider organization._ It also discusses 澱est practices, standards, and creative approaches to teaching and learning._ In addition, it suggests an instructional model that incorporates the ARCS model.
Kim and Keller (2008) investigate what kind of supportive information can be effective
in improving the situation where there were severe motivational challenges.
Motivational and volitional e-mail messages (MVEM) were constructed based on an
integrated model of four theories and methods, which are Keller's ARCS model, Kuhl's
action control theory, Gollwitzer's Rubicon model of motivation and volition, and Visser
& Keller's strategy of motivational messages, and distributed with personal messages
created based on learner analysis to a large undergraduate class. In order to examine
the effects of the messages on motivation for the course, study habits (study time),
and achievement (test grade), MVEM were s ent to 30 students (Personal Message
Group: PMG) with personal messages and to 71 students (Non-Personal Message
Group: NonPMG) without personal messages. Results indicated that PMG showed a
higher level of motivation, especially in regard to confidence, than NonPMG. Also, the
mean test grade of PMG increased so that the initial difference of the test grade
between the two groups significantly decreased. Although there was no difference
between the two groups in study habits, the findings suggest that personal messages
addressing specific individual problems raise the positive effects of MVEM constructed based on the integrated model.
CONCLUSION
Many studies have been made about the designing of motivational learning processes.
One of the most important of them is the ARCS design.
Categories of attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction of this design seek to
find answers to the questions about the way motivational strategies are used in a
teachning activity which aims at stimulating the learning motive of the students or
continuing this motive. Distance education offers a very wide range of opportunities in the distribution and the usage of teaching. All these also incl ude various motivational opportunities. Distance education programs in which both the elements of teaching and motivation are used together and whose design is made with care can improve the success of distance education student
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF AUTHOR
Jale BALABAN-SALI is an Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Communication
Sciences at Anadolu University, Turkey. She graduated from the Faculty of
Communication Sciences at Anadolu University in 1995, received her M.A. in
1998 and Ph.D. in 2002 in the field of educational communications and
planning from the same university. She currently works as an Academic Visitor
at the Anglia Ruskin University in United Kingdom. She has contributed to
several book chapters, published articles in journals, and presented papers at
conferences. She has also designed a number of distance education materials.
Her research interests include motivational design of instruction, teaching
values/attitudes, and quantitative and qualitative methods in educational research.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Jale BALABAN-SALI
Anglia Ruskin University, Faculty of Education
Bishop Hall Lane, Chelmsford CM1 1SQ, Essex, UK
Email: jbalaban@anadolu.edu.tr
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